Investigating Student Netbook Usage Using Activity Theory

As schools move to 1:1 computing, research is required to inform the design and provision of access and usage by students. Drawing upon Activity Theory as the conceptual framework, and through employing a mixed method methodology, this study seeks to determine whether or not netbooks are an appropriate computing device for Year Seven students. Specifically, it investigated whether or not the ratio or quantum of access to the devices was a significant factor in these effects in the following variations of student access to netbooks: • 1:1 student to netbook access five days per week for six weeks; • 1:1 student to netbook access three days per week for ten weeks; • 2:1 student to netbook access five days per week for six weeks; and, • 2:1 student to netbook access three days per week for ten weeks. This paper reports early findings of that study designed to investigate four patterns of access and usage in four Year 7 classes in a Non-Government Primary School in Queensland. Exploring netbooks and 1:1 computing This paper provides some early findings of a study undertaken to determine the appropriateness of netbooks as a computing device for Year 7 students. A netbook is a very small, light-weight, low-cost, energy-efficient device (Taylor, 2008). The term netbook was coined by Psion in 1999 as a generic term for small, form-factor portable computers with sufficient processing power for Internet and other core computing functions such as word processing (Monticello, 2008). The study investigated the impact of their use on the classroom environment and on student collaboration in four, Year Seven classrooms. This study is significant as schools, which might be interested in exploring netbooks as an option, need guidance not only on the use and effectiveness on 1:1 computing, but also need to determine whether or not netbooks provide an economical, practical solution to the provision of 1:1 computing. Few studies provide this guidance, as Penuel (2006) demonstrated in locating only 30 studies of 1:1 initiatives that used rigorous research procedures. The majority of these studies focused on urban, middle school or high school students in affluent American schools (Russell, Bebell, & Higgins, 2004). Literature Review – uLearning and 1:1 Computing The term ubiquitous computing was used by Mark Weiser (1991 in Swan, Hooft, Kratcoski & Schenker, 2007, p. 482) who stated that ‘The most profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it’. For the purposes of this paper, the definition of ubiquitous or 1:1 computing is adopted as being, ‘every student in a class has a learning device to participate in learning activities. These devices are mobile and equipped with wireless communication capabilities’ (Liang et al., 2005, p 181). Ubiquitous computing – or uLearning allows students individual access to learning activities which suit their learning styles, preference and/or learning needs. This suggests that there no longer needs to be a ‘one size fits all’ approach to learning and that “multi-modal options and device independent access will be the norm” (Millea, Green & Putland, 2005, p. 13). Investigating Student Netbook Usage Using Activity Theory Kevin Larkin & Glenn Finger ACEC2010: DIGITAL DIVERSITY CONFERENCE 6-9 APRIL 2010, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA To determine the technology device to enable 1:1 computing for this study, considerable investigations were conducted, including reviewing ubiquitous, or 1:1 computing research (e.g. Russell, et al., 2004; Franklin, 2007; Penuel, 2006). The initial intention was to use PDAs as the computing device due to the mobility and functionality which they provided in terms of available mLearning tools. mLearning can be defined as “the intersection of mobile computing and e-learning that includes anytime, anywhere resources; strong search capabilities; rich interaction; powerful support for effective learning; and performance based assessment” (Abernathy, 2001, p. 1). Keegan (2005, p. 3) suggests that PDAs are the most appropriate tool for mLearning in terms of a balance between functionality and mobility. However, there has been continual development in mobile technologies, and consequently, in late 2008, the decision was made to use netbooks, rather than PDAs. The Acer Aspire One model was chosen as the most appropriate netbook to use in my study. While still providing the positive aspects of PDA use, such as mobility, sense of ownership, 1-1 access (Abernathy, 2001; Roschelle, 2003), netbooks minimise the negative aspects of PDA use; e.g. small screen, input limitations, limited functionality (Oliver & Barrett, 2004; Serif & Ghinea, 2005). netbooks were also considered more appropriate than full size laptops in terms of size, portability, weight and cost. As displayed in Figure 1, Keegan’s (2005) diagrammatic representation of eLearning and mLearning has been built upon to incorporate the affordances of netbook computing devices. We suggest that eLearning / mLearning and functionality / mobility perspectives should not be seen as dichotomous but rather as relational. In other words, a desktop computer has limited mobility and high functionality and a mobile phone has high mobility and limited functionality, but both devices have characteristics of both perspectives. FUNCTIONALITY MOBILITY Desktop Computers Laptop Computers Netbooks PDA’s Palmtops Smartphones e.g. Blackberries / iPhones Mobile Phones eLEARNING mLEARNING Figure 1. Functionality and mobility reconceptualised in terms of a continuum of learning modalities The use of computers in education has been comprehensively researched both in the international educational community (e.g. Keegan, 2005; Lim, 2002; Penuel, 2006; Roblyer, 2006) as well as the Australian context (e.g. Jamieson-Proctor & Finger, 2008; Fluck & Robertson, 2006; Lloyd & Cronin, 2002; Romeo & Walker, 2002; Newhouse, 1997; 1998). A review of the relevant literature also revealed that research has explored the effects of computers on student learning and has generally reported positive outcomes for students (Silvernail & Lane, 2004; Warschauer, 2006) although these findings are not universal (Newhouse, 1998; Russell et al., 2004). There are emerging studies which collectively indicate that ubiquitous access to digital technologies, such as laptop computers can have a “profound effect on student achievement” (Livingston, 2009, p. 67). For example, the study of 259 laptop-using students in California (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005) showed that students with 1:1 computing had higher marks than their non-laptop using peers on standardised tests for English, Mathematics and writing. Although 1:1 computing is being increasingly promoted in Australia through the Australian Government’s Digital Education Revolution (www.digitaleducationrevolution.gov.au), little is known about whether or not varying the pattern of access impacts upon learning outcomes. In particular, while there have been studies of laptop use, there is little evidence-based research about the effects of wireless enabled netbooks when the access to the devices is varied according to quantity and access patterns. Given the cost advantage for schools of netbooks over most laptops, greater 1:1 access might be able to be provided in schools where funding for technology is limited. Investigating Student Netbook Usage Using Activity Theory Kevin Larkin & Glenn Finger ACEC2010: DIGITAL DIVERSITY CONFERENCE 6-9 APRIL 2010, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA Research Questions and Activity Theory The research questions which this study explored were: 1. Did varying the ratio of netbook availability – i.e. from 1-1 to 1-2 or varying the pattern of availability i.e. five days per week for six weeks vs. three days per week for ten weeks effect student usage in terms of quantum (as a ratio of available time) and quality of use? 2. Did the specific “learning mobility and functionality” provided by the netbooks impact on their uptake by Year Seven students and were netbooks an appropriate solution to identified problems with laptops? e.g. size, weight, battery life, cost (Rockman, 1997; Hill & Reeves, 2002). 3. Did the opportunity for ubiquitous access to the netbooks effect student to student collaboration and types of classroom communication? 4. Did the opportunity for ubiquitous access to the netbooks effect the classroom environment? Throughout 2009, four Year Seven classrooms had varied levels of access to a set of netbooks for 30 school days. Four patterns of usage were investigated; • Class A. 1-1 student to netbook access five days per week for six weeks; • Class B. 2-1 student to netbook access three days per week for ten weeks. • Class C. 2-1 student to netbook access five days per week for six weeks; and • Class D. 1-1 student to netbook access three days per week for ten weeks. The study was informed by Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987) as the conceptual framework, and employed a mixed method methodology (Onwuegbuzie, 2002). The research focussed on a variety of themes including mLearning, Ubiquitous Computing, Communication, and Classroom Environments. The research aimed to contribute to both practical and theoretical knowledge in the above domains. The study took place in a Queensland Non-Government Primary School. An initial survey of the Year Seven students involved in the study indicated that 95% of the students had computing and internet access at home. As a consequence, it was decided that the netbooks would not be taken home by the students. The ubiquitous use of computers in a classroom adds a significant component to an already complex context consisting of multiple interrelated elements; e.g. teachers, students, curriculum outcomes, and classroom management practices. Consequently, this necessitated a research approach which accommodated the realities of complex environments (Tondeur, van Braak & Valcke, 2007). In arguing for the appropriateness of Activity Theory as a conceptual tool to analyse educational contexts, we propose that considering classrooms as complex systems allows the examination of the six key elements of such systems – namely subject, rules, community, division of labour, object and tool – all mediating the outcome of a goal. Taking this approach demanded an understanding that teachers and students were not ‘units of analysis’ (Shaffer & Serlin, 2004), but were “the key component in the establishment of social and cultural contexts which explicitly affect the phenomena under study” (Maxwell, 2004, p. 9). A mixed method approach allowed the investigation of what happened in the classrooms without disrupting their integrity. Activity Theory, based on the Hegelian concept of dialectics, argues that the attempted establishment of dichotomous contexts (e.g. qualitative – quantitative; quality – quantity; hard – soft data), are neither helpful nor productive (Ercikan & Roth, 2006). From this perspective, an integrative, mixed method approach, capable of dealing with different elements of analysis e.g. individual, group, community and culture was required. Such a methodological choice afforded a range of options in terms of data sources, the analysis of data, and the generation of warranted findings which best suited Investigating Student Netbook Usage Using Activity Theory Kevin Larkin & Glenn Finger ACEC2010: DIGITAL DIVERSITY CONFERENCE 6-9 APRIL 2010, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA the research questions under investigation (Coupland, 2004; Ercikan & Roth, 2006; Gordon, 2006). Data Collection and Analysis As a mixed method approach is ‘empirically omnivorous’ (Freebody, 2003), it permits the collection of all manner of potentially relevant artefacts and events. Data were collected through: 1. Classroom Observations – including the use of the Survey of Computer Use (SCU) (Dawson, Cavanaugh & Ritzhaupt, 2008/2009). 2. Semi – structured interviews and student forums (Freebody, 2003; Garthwait & Weller, 2005). 3. New Classroom Inventory Index (NCEI) (Newhouse, 1997) 4. Data Logging Software on netbooks (Swan, Hooft, Kratcoski & Unger, 2005) 5. Participant Diary (Optional) and Researcher Diary (Sewell, 2006) 6. Anonymous, open-ended survey of all students at the conclusion of their netbook usage period. Data analysis was undertaken throughout the study, enabling the early analysis to shape the subsequent data collection processes. Findings from the early analysis, reported here, involved transcribing interview data, and the processing of classroom observations and other artefacts (Garthwait & Weller, 2005). Data collected was coded into emerging categories of interest. Initially these were key Activity Theory elements noted, but also included other themes as they emerged; e.g. productivity and student behaviour. Initially, the data analysis process was based on the data collected from one teacher and one class. At a latter stage in the research, as other teachers and classes became involved in the project, these initial transcripts were re-analysed and triangulated with other data to determine new themes and new categories for analysis. Quantitative data collected via the NCEI, SCU, and data logging software, were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 17), successfully utilised in a number of ICT related research projects (Mouza, 2008; Newhouse, 1997; Gordon, 2006). Management, coding, and analysis of the qualitative data were assisted through nVivo7 (QSR International). Ethical approvals from Griffith University and approval from Brisbane Catholic Education (BCE) to conduct research in one of their schools were obtained. A key ethical consideration was the well-being of the students and teachers involved. This was particularly vital as the principal investigator was a member of staff at the school, and would have an ongoing relationship with both students and teachers beyond the completion of the research project. Reliability and validity was enhanced via the employment of a number of strategies recommended by Creswell (1998). These strategies included triangulation of the data; an appropriate time spent observing and interviewing; the clarification and declaration of personal bias; and the decision to enter the research site as a participant rather than an observer. As a final check of validity and reliability, ‘member checking’ (Eisenhart & De Haan, 2005) was added whereby the principal researcher, after competing data analysis, returned to the site of the research and asked the participants, “Have I got this right?”. Therefore, the teachers and students in the project were involved in all stages of the study and this helped ensure the accuracy of our interpretations. Summary of the Major Findings The summary provided relates to early initial findings, and these are presented succinctly, given the limitations of the length of this paper.